How Ethereum Gas Fees Work: A Simple Guide to Gwei, EIP-1559, and Saving Money

If you've ever sent ETH, swapped tokens, or minted an NFT, you've paid gas fees. And if you've ever watched a $10 transaction cost $50 in fees during network congestion, you've wondered what exactly you're paying for—and how to avoid getting ripped off.

Ethereum gas fees aren't arbitrary charges. They're the price of using a decentralized computer that processes over 1 million transactions daily without intermediaries. Understanding how they work helps you avoid overpaying, prevents failed transactions, and unlocks cheaper alternatives like Layer 2 networks where the same operations cost 10 to 100 times less.

This guide breaks down gas fees from the ground up: what gas units and Gwei actually mean, how EIP-1559 changed the rules, why some actions cost more than others, and how Layer 2s like Base reduce costs by up to 95%. You'll learn to read fee breakdowns on block explorers, estimate costs accurately, and use practical strategies to save money without sacrificing security.

Whether you're new to crypto or building onchain, this article equips you to navigate Ethereum confidently and economically.

Why Gas Fees Exist: Paying for Computation and Security

Ethereum gas fees compensate validators—the network participants who process transactions and maintain blockchain security. Every action on Ethereum requires computational work: transferring ETH, updating smart contract storage, or swapping tokens. Gas fees ensure validators get paid for that work while simultaneously preventing spam and abuse.

Without fees, malicious actors could flood the network with infinite loops or pointless transactions, grinding operations to a halt. Fees create an economic barrier: every operation costs something, so attackers would need to spend real money to disrupt the network. This design keeps Ethereum decentralized and functional.

Fees vary based on two factors: the complexity of your transaction and network demand. A simple ETH transfer requires minimal computation (21,000 gas units), while deploying a smart contract or minting an NFT involves far more operations. When many users compete to get transactions processed quickly—like during an NFT drop—fees rise as people bid higher to jump the queue.

The money doesn't go to apps or wallet providers. Validators receive the fees directly from the blockchain protocol itself, covering hardware costs, electricity, and the capital locked up to secure the network. Since Ethereum switched to proof-of-stake in 2022, validators stake ETH to participate, and fees provide their primary revenue.

Units 101: Gas, Gwei, and USD

Ethereum's fee system uses three interconnected measurements: gas units, gas price, and total cost. Newcomers often confuse these, but understanding each prevents costly mistakes.

Gas units measure computational work. Think of gas like miles on a road trip—some actions are short drives (ETH transfer = 21,000 units), others are cross-country hauls (complex contract deployment = 1,000,000+ units). The blockchain doesn't care about dollars or Gwei at this level; it only counts operations executed.

Gas price determines how much you pay per unit, denominated in Gwei. One Gwei equals one billionth of one ETH (0.000000001 ETH). If gas price is 20 Gwei and your transaction uses 21,000 units, you'll pay 420,000 Gwei total, or 0.00042 ETH. Gas price fluctuates constantly based on network demand—it might be 10 Gwei at 3 AM on a Tuesday and 100 Gwei during a hyped token launch.

Total cost in USD converts your ETH payment to dollars using current exchange rates. Using the example above: 0.00042 ETH × $2,500/ETH = $1.05 total. This final number is what most people care about, but you can't control it directly—you control gas price (how aggressively you bid) and gas limit (maximum units you authorize).

A common confusion point: raising your gas limit doesn't make transactions more expensive unless you actually use all that gas. It's like putting $100 in your wallet before shopping—you only spend what you need, and the rest stays yours. Setting a gas limit of 50,000 for a 21,000-unit transfer just ensures you won't run out; unused gas refunds automatically.

The interplay between these units creates Ethereum's fee market. When you send a transaction, you're essentially saying: "I'm willing to pay X Gwei per unit for up to Y total units." Validators prioritize higher bids when blocks fill up, and fees adjust dynamically to match demand.

EIP-1559 in Plain English

Before August 2021, Ethereum used a first-price auction system: you bid a gas price, and if validators accepted, your transaction got included. This created wild fee volatility—users often overpaid drastically to guarantee inclusion, and wallets struggled to estimate accurately.

EIP-1559 introduced a smarter system with three components: base fee, priority fee (tip), and max fee.

Base fee is the minimum price per gas unit that all transactions in a block must pay. The protocol calculates base fee algorithmically based on the previous block's fullness. If the last block was more than 50% full, base fee increases by up to 12.5%. If it was under 50% full, base fee decreases by the same amount. This creates predictable pricing that adjusts smoothly with demand rather than spiking chaotically.

Crucially, base fees are burned—removed from circulation permanently. This makes ETH slightly deflationary during high activity periods, reducing total supply. Since EIP-1559 launched, over 4 million ETH has burned, worth billions of dollars.

Priority fee (or "tip") is an optional extra payment that goes directly to validators. When network congestion causes long backlogs, paying a higher tip incentivizes validators to include your transaction sooner. During normal times, a 1-2 Gwei tip suffices; during NFT mints or major DeFi events, tips can spike to 20+ Gwei.

Max fee is your total cap per gas unit—base fee plus max priority tip. Your wallet sets this as a safety limit. If the actual base fee plus your chosen tip is lower than your max fee, you only pay the lower amount. Any excess refunds automatically. For example: if you set max fee at 50 Gwei but base fee is 30 Gwei and your tip is 2 Gwei, you pay 32 Gwei per unit and keep the difference.

The algorithm behind EIP-1559 targets 50% block capacity, smoothing fee curves and making wallet estimates far more reliable than the old auction system. Users benefit from less overpayment, validators still earn competitive rewards, and the network gains a deflationary pressure mechanism.

How Your Wallet Estimates Fees (and Why It's Sometimes Wrong)

When you initiate a transaction, your wallet doesn't guess fees randomly—it analyzes the mempool (the pool of pending transactions) and recent block history to predict what validators will accept. This estimation works well most of the time but breaks down during rapid demand spikes or unusual network conditions.

Wallets typically offer three speed tiers: slow (low tip, might take several blocks), normal (moderate tip, 1-3 blocks), and fast (high tip, next block priority). They set base fee based on the current protocol value, then add a tip corresponding to your chosen speed. The mempool shows what other users are offering, so wallets recommend tips that outbid a certain percentage of pending transactions.

The problem: mempool data is constantly changing. If 10,000 users suddenly try to mint the same NFT, pending transactions skyrocket in seconds, and your wallet's estimate—calculated moments before—becomes outdated. You might submit with a 5 Gwei tip while others are bidding 50 Gwei, leaving your transaction stuck for hours.

Another wrinkle: wallets default to conservative gas limits to prevent out-of-gas failures. If your transaction interacts with a complex contract, the wallet might suggest 200,000 units even if it typically uses 150,000. This doesn't cost extra (unused gas refunds), but it can make cost previews look scarier than reality.

You can override wallet estimates through "advanced" or "custom" settings. This is safe when you understand current network conditions, but dangerous otherwise. Setting max fee too low guarantees your transaction gets ignored. Setting it absurdly high won't make it faster than necessary, but you risk paying inflated fees if base fee spikes unexpectedly between submission and inclusion.

Best practice: trust wallet estimates during normal activity. During congestion (check gas trackers like Etherscan's real-time feed), manually verify current base fee and mempool tips before overriding. If a transaction isn't time-sensitive, choose "slow" and save 30-50% by waiting for demand to subside.

Calculating a Fee Step-by-Step on Ethereum

Understanding fee calculation turns opaque costs into predictable math. Every Ethereum transaction follows the same formula:

Total fee = gas used × (base fee + priority fee)

Let's walk through real examples to see this in action.

ETH Transfer:
Sending ETH wallet-to-wallet uses exactly 21,000 gas units (this is hardcoded in the protocol). Suppose current base fee is 18 Gwei and you add a 2 Gwei tip.

• Gas used: 21,000
• Base fee: 18 Gwei
• Priority fee: 2 Gwei
• Calculation: 21,000 × (18 + 2) = 420,000 Gwei = 0.00042 ETH
• At $2,500/ETH: 0.00042 × 2,500 = $1.05 total

ERC-20 Token Transfer:
Transferring tokens like USDC or DAI involves calling a smart contract's transfer function, requiring more gas—typically 50,000 to 65,000 units. Using 65,000 units with 18 Gwei base + 2 Gwei tip:

• Gas used: 65,000
• Calculation: 65,000 × 20 = 1,300,000 Gwei = 0.0013 ETH
• At $2,500/ETH: $3.25 total

NFT Mint:
Minting an NFT writes new data to blockchain storage—one of the most gas-intensive operations. Costs vary wildly (150,000 to 500,000+ units) depending on contract complexity. For a typical 200,000-unit mint at 25 Gwei (15 base + 10 tip during high demand):

• Gas used: 200,000
• Calculation: 200,000 × 25 = 5,000,000 Gwei = 0.005 ETH
• At $2,500/ETH: $12.50 total

Before recent upgrades, this same mint would have cost over $145 during peak congestion—a 95% improvement.

DEX Swap (Uniswap):
Swapping tokens on a decentralized exchange like Uniswap involves multiple contract interactions: checking balances, executing the swap, updating liquidity pools. Gas usage ranges from 100,000 to 250,000 units depending on token pair and routing. For a 150,000-unit swap at 20 Gwei:

• Gas used: 150,000
• Calculation: 150,000 × 20 = 3,000,000 Gwei = 0.003 ETH
• At $2,500/ETH: $7.50 total

Each example shows the same pattern: complexity drives gas usage, market demand sets price. You can't change how much gas an action inherently requires, but you can control when you transact and how much tip you offer.

Gas Limit, Refunds, and Reverts

Gas limit is the maximum amount of gas you authorize a transaction to consume. It functions as a safety cap, preventing runaway costs if something goes wrong during execution. Setting it correctly avoids two failure modes: running out of gas mid-execution or wasting money on unnecessary authorization.

When you submit a transaction, you specify a gas limit and max fee per unit. The EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine) executes operations sequentially, deducting gas for each step. If execution completes using less than your limit, unused gas refunds automatically—you only pay for actual consumption.

For example: you set a 100,000 gas limit for a token transfer that uses 65,000 units. You pay for 65,000; the remaining 35,000 refunds immediately. Your wallet shows "gas used: 65,000 / limit: 100,000" on the transaction receipt.

Out-of-gas errors happen when your limit is too low. Suppose you try swapping tokens with a 100,000 limit, but the transaction actually needs 150,000 units. The EVM executes operations until it hits your limit, then halts. You've paid for 100,000 units of computation, but the swap never completes—no tokens exchanged, no state changes saved. The gas fee is gone forever.

This differs from contract reverts, which occur when a transaction executes fully but fails a condition check (like insufficient slippage tolerance on a DEX swap). Reverts consume gas up to the point of failure, typically less than the full limit. You still lose that gas, but it's usually a smaller amount than an out-of-gas failure.

Wallets estimate gas limits conservatively to prevent out-of-gas scenarios, often adding a 10-20% buffer. This means you'll rarely hit the limit, and excess gas always refunds. However, during contract upgrades or unusual interactions, estimates can miss—manually increasing limits is safe as long as you don't set absurdly high values (which could lock up ETH unnecessarily while the transaction pends).

Best practice: trust wallet limits for standard operations (transfers, swaps, mints). For custom contract interactions or experimental dApps, simulate transactions using tools like Tenderly to see actual gas usage before committing real funds.

Why Some Actions Cost More Gas Than Others

Not all blockchain operations are created equal. Gas costs scale with computational complexity and state changes, making certain actions significantly more expensive than others.

Storage writes are the most costly operations. Every time a transaction creates or updates data in Ethereum's permanent storage—like minting an NFT, deploying a contract, or adding liquidity to a pool—it consumes far more gas than reading existing data or performing calculations. This design discourages blockchain bloat by making permanent storage economically expensive.

Token approvals require moderate gas (45,000-50,000 units) because they update an allowance record in the token contract, permitting another contract (like a DEX) to spend tokens on your behalf. You typically approve once per token per protocol, then pay only execution gas for subsequent swaps.

Complex contract calls consume gas proportionally to their logic. A simple ETH transfer executes one operation (update sender and receiver balances). A Uniswap swap calculates new pool ratios, transfers tokens, updates reserves, emits events, and potentially routes through multiple pools—easily 5-10x more operations. Each opcode (basic EVM instruction) has a fixed gas cost, so more operations = higher total.

Calldata size affects fees on Layer 2s and complex transactions. Calldata is the input data you send to a contract—for instance, function parameters or token IDs. Longer calldata costs more to process and store in transaction history. This matters less on Layer 1 Ethereum but becomes significant on rollups, which post compressed calldata to mainnet for data availability.

Batch transactions can paradoxically save gas. If you need to perform three separate token approvals, you'll pay base overhead (21,000 units) three times. Batching them into one contract call pays overhead once, saving ~40,000 units total. Tools like Gnosis Safe allow batching, though they add slight complexity.

Typical gas usage by action:

Understanding these ranges helps you budget and choose optimal times to transact. Simple transfers can happen anytime at low cost; save complex operations like NFT mints for off-peak hours when base fees drop.

Layer 2 Fees Explained: Base and Other Rollups

Layer 2 networks like Base, Arbitrum, and Optimism solve Ethereum's high fee problem by processing transactions off the main chain, then posting compressed data back to Layer 1 for security. This architecture slashes costs by 10 to 100 times while maintaining Ethereum's decentralization and security guarantees.

Layer 2 fees have two components: execution gas and L1 data availability cost.

Execution gas works almost identically to Ethereum mainnet. Your transaction runs on the L2's virtual machine, consuming gas based on computational complexity. A simple ETH transfer on Base uses ~21,000 units at the L2's gas price (typically 0.001-0.01 Gwei), costing a fraction of a cent. Even complex DEX swaps use similar unit amounts as on Layer 1, but at 1000x cheaper prices.

L1 data availability cost is where the real savings come from. Rollups don't just execute transactions independently—they must prove to Ethereum mainnet that transactions were processed correctly. They do this by posting compressed transaction data (calldata) to Layer 1 in batches. This posting incurs an L1 gas fee, but it's split across thousands of transactions in the batch, making the per-transaction share tiny.

Breaking down a typical Base transaction:

• Execution gas: 65,000 units × 0.005 Gwei = 0.000000325 ETH ≈ $0.0008
• L1 data post: ~$0.01-0.05 per transaction (share of batch posting)
• Total: ~$0.01-0.10, compared to $1-5 on mainnet for the same operation

The introduction of "blobs" via EIP-4844 in 2024 reduced L1 data costs by another 95%, making L2 transactions absurdly cheap. Blobs are temporary data storage optimized for rollups, far less expensive than permanent calldata.

Optimistic rollups (Base, Arbitrum, Optimism) assume transactions are valid unless proven otherwise. They post transaction data to L1, wait 7 days for fraud proofs, then finalize. This makes execution cheap but withdrawals slow.

ZK rollups (zkSync, Starknet) use cryptographic proofs to instantly verify transaction validity. Execution costs slightly more due to proof generation, but withdrawals are instant. Both types post to L1, so data costs are similar.

For builders and frequent users, bridging assets to Base or another L2 unlocks near-zero fees for everyday operations. You pay a one-time L1 fee to bridge funds, then enjoy cheap transactions until you need to withdraw back to mainnet. How crypto bridges work explains the mechanics and safety considerations.

Checking fee breakdowns on Basescan (Base's block explorer) shows both components clearly—you'll see "execution gas" and "L1 gas" as separate line items. This transparency helps you understand where costs come from and confirms the massive savings versus Layer 1.

Practical Ways to Save on Gas (Without Getting Rekt)

Cutting gas costs doesn't require advanced technical skills—just timing, settings adjustments, and smart habits.

Transact during off-peak hours. Network demand follows predictable patterns: weekday mornings and evenings (US/Europe time zones) see high activity, while late nights and weekends are quieter. Base fees can drop 30-50% at 3 AM compared to 6 PM. If your transaction isn't urgent, waiting a few hours saves real money. Check Etherscan's gas tracker to see current and historical patterns.

Use EIP-1559 settings intelligently. Most wallets default to "medium" speed, which overpays during low demand. Switch to "slow" (low priority fee) when you're not in a rush—it typically confirms within 2-5 blocks instead of 1-2, saving 20-40% on tips. During congestion, monitor real-time tips in the mempool and set your priority fee just above the median, not the maximum.

Batch actions whenever possible. If you need to approve three tokens for a DEX, batch them into one transaction using tools like Gnosis Safe or dApp-specific batch functions. You'll pay base overhead once instead of three times, saving 40,000-60,000 gas units.

Minimize token approvals. Unlimited approvals (letting a contract spend infinite tokens) require one transaction; limited approvals (specific amounts) require re-approval each time. For protocols you trust, unlimited approvals save gas long-term. For experimental dApps, limit approvals for security even if it costs slightly more.

Simulate transactions before sending. Wallet extensions like MetaMask integrate simulation tools (via Tenderly) that predict gas usage and show whether a transaction will revert. This prevents wasting gas on doomed transactions—especially valuable for complex DeFi operations with tight slippage windows.

Bridge to Layer 2 for frequent operations. If you're swapping tokens weekly or minting NFTs regularly, the upfront cost of bridging to Base or Arbitrum pays for itself in 3-5 transactions. Onchain wallet mechanics explains how the same wallet controls assets on multiple chains—you're not creating a new wallet, just accessing a different network.

Avoid common mistakes:

• Don't set absurdly high max fees "just in case"—you'll overpay if demand spikes unexpectedly
• Don't spam failed transactions with identical settings—increase priority fee or wait for congestion to clear
• Don't ignore gas limit warnings—if your wallet suggests raising it, trust the estimate unless you've simulated successfully

These strategies compound. A user who times transactions well, batches approvals, and operates primarily on Layer 2 can reduce annual gas spending by 80-95% compared to randomly timed Layer 1 activity.

Reading Fee Breakdowns on Block Explorers

Block explorers like Etherscan (Ethereum) and Basescan (Base) display detailed fee information for every transaction. Learning to read these breakdowns helps you verify costs, diagnose failures, and understand where your money went.

Find a transaction using its hash (the unique ID your wallet provides). On the transaction detail page, scroll to the "Gas" section. You'll see several fields:

Base Fee: The per-unit base fee when your transaction was included. Multiplied by gas used, this portion burned.

Max Fee: The maximum you authorized per gas unit. Often higher than what you actually paid.

Max Priority Fee: Your maximum tip offer. Actual tip paid may be lower if the block wasn't full.

Gas Used: Actual units consumed. Compare this to your gas limit to see efficiency.

Gas Limit: Maximum units you authorized. Unused amount refunded.

Transaction Fee: Total cost in ETH (gas used × effective price). Converted to USD at current rates.

Example Etherscan breakdown:

Gas Used: 150,000 (of 200,000 limit)
Base Fee: 18 Gwei
Max Fee: 50 Gwei
Max Priority Fee: 3 Gwei
Effective Priority Fee: 2 Gwei
Transaction Fee: 0.003 ETH ($7.50)

This tells you: transaction used 75% of authorized gas, base fee was 18 Gwei (burned), you tipped 2 Gwei (paid to validator), and total cost was 20 Gwei × 150,000 units. Your max settings were high but capped overpayment.

On Basescan (Layer 2):

Base transactions split fees into two components:

L2 Execution Fee: Gas used on Base × L2 gas price (usually tiny)
L1 Data Fee: Your share of posting transaction data to Ethereum mainnet

Both display separately, showing how the total (often $0.01-0.10) breaks down. This transparency proves Layer 2 savings—you'll see L1 posting costs pennies per transaction versus dollars on mainnet.

Interpreting failures:

If "Status" shows "Failed" or "Reverted," look at:

• Gas Used vs Limit: If gas used equals limit, you hit an out-of-gas error—increase limit next time
• Revert Reason: Some explorers decode why a contract rejected your transaction (e.g., "Slippage too high" on DEX swaps)
• Partial Gas Consumption: Reverts often use 60-80% of limit—gas burned, transaction failed

If status is "Pending" for hours, your priority fee is too low for current demand. Use transaction replacement to speed it up or cancel (covered in the next section).

Block explorers also show real-time gas prices at the top of their sites—useful for timing new transactions. Etherscan's tracker graphs base fee over the past 24 hours, helping you spot patterns and plan accordingly.

Fixing Stuck Transactions and Common Mistakes

Transactions get stuck when your priority fee is too low compared to current network demand. Validators prioritize higher-paying transactions, leaving yours pending indefinitely. Here's how to fix it without losing funds.

Replacing a stuck transaction:

Every transaction has a nonce—a sequential number tied to your wallet address. Your wallet sends nonce 0, then 1, then 2, etc. Validators process them in order. If transaction 5 is stuck, transactions 6, 7, 8 also get stuck waiting behind it.

To replace a stuck transaction:

1. Identify the nonce: Check the pending transaction on Etherscan under "Advanced Details"
2. Create a replacement: Send a new transaction with the same nonce but higher priority fee (increase by at least 10%)
3. Submit before original confirms: If the original confirms first, your replacement will fail (harmlessly—you won't pay twice)

Most wallets support this through "speed up" or "cancel" buttons. Canceling works by sending a 0 ETH transfer to yourself with the stuck nonce—effectively replacing the stuck transaction with a no-op.

Nonce management:

Nonce issues cause confusing errors. If you accidentally send nonce 7 before nonce 6 confirms, validators ignore nonce 7 until 6 processes. Always let transactions confirm in sequence unless intentionally replacing.

Some wallets (like MetaMask) track nonces automatically. Others require manual checking via Etherscan. If nonces get out of sync (usually after network switches or wallet resets), you'll see "invalid nonce" errors. Fix by waiting for pending transactions to clear or manually resetting nonce via wallet settings (advanced feature).

Myths about max fee:

Setting a high max fee doesn't guarantee speed—it only caps overpayment. What matters is your priority fee relative to others in the mempool. If everyone's offering 20 Gwei tips and you offer 5 Gwei, your 100 Gwei max fee won't help.

Conversely, setting max fee too low means your transaction fails if base fee exceeds it. Safe practice: set max fee at 2-3x current base fee to handle normal fluctuations, and adjust priority fee for desired speed.

Avoiding infinite pending queues:

If multiple transactions stack up pending, don't keep submitting new ones—you'll create a nonce backlog. Either:

• Replace the earliest stuck transaction to unblock the queue
• Wait for congestion to clear (fees naturally drop within hours)
• Use a wallet that handles nonce replacement automatically

When to give up:

If a transaction sits pending for 24+ hours with no progress, network conditions have likely shifted dramatically. Replace it with much higher priority (check current mempool tips) or cancel to free your nonce for future transactions.

Understanding these mechanics turns stuck transactions from panic-inducing mysteries into routine fixes. You're not losing funds—just navigating a fee market that occasionally requires manual intervention.

What's Next for Fees: Blobs (EIP-4844) and Beyond

Ethereum's fee story is rapidly evolving. The March 2024 Dencun upgrade introduced "blobs" (EIP-4844), and its impact is already transformative: Layer 2 transaction fees dropped 95% from $145 to $0.65 for NFT mints and continue falling into 2025-2026.

Blobs explained simply:

Before blobs, rollups posted transaction data to Layer 1 as permanent calldata—expensive because it stays onchain forever. Blobs are temporary data storage: rollups post batched transactions to blobs, which validators check for a few weeks then discard. This costs ~10x less than calldata while maintaining security (validators verify data before pruning it).

Each Ethereum block can include up to 6 blobs, creating a separate fee market from regular transactions. When blob space is plentiful (most of the time in 2025), L2 data costs drop to near-zero. When multiple rollups compete for blob space, fees rise but remain far cheaper than calldata.

What users notice:

• Layer 2 transactions now cost less than $0.01 in many cases
• Mainnet fees remain similar for direct Layer 1 activity
• Bridging to L2s becomes even more economical as blobs reduce withdrawal costs
• Long-term, most everyday crypto activity will happen on L2s at fractions of a cent

Future scaling: Danksharding

Full Danksharding (Ethereum's ultimate scaling plan) will increase blob capacity from 6 per block to potentially 64+, multiplying L2 throughput 10x again. This is years away but promises fees so low that paying for blockchain transactions feels like paying for email—technically non-zero, but practically invisible.

Optimistic vs ZK rollups will continue competing, with ZK potentially dominating as proof generation gets cheaper. Both benefit equally from blobs since data posting is their shared bottleneck.

For users, the takeaway is simple: fees trend down as scaling improves. Operating on Layer 2 today positions you to benefit from future improvements without re-learning systems. Ethereum mainnet remains available for high-value or security-critical operations, while L2s handle daily activity at negligible cost.

Understanding Ethereum gas fees transforms them from mysterious charges into predictable costs you control through timing, settings, and network choice. You've learned the units (gas, Gwei, USD), the mechanics (EIP-1559's base fee and tips), why actions vary in price, and how Layer 2s achieve 10-100x savings.

Armed with this knowledge, you can:

• Read block explorer fee breakdowns and diagnose failures
• Estimate transaction costs accurately before sending
• Time operations for lower base fees and avoid overpaying validators
• Fix stuck transactions through nonce replacement
• Leverage Layer 2 networks like Base for frequent activity

Ethereum's fee market is dynamic but no longer opaque. As scaling improves and more users migrate to Layer 2s, the network becomes increasingly accessible without sacrificing decentralization or security. Whether you're sending your first ETH transfer or deploying smart contracts, these principles apply universally—helping you navigate onchain activity confidently and economically.